Databases
Normalise until it hurts, denormalise until it works — but know which pain you are trading for.
One place to change each fact. Duplicated data drifts, and drifted data produces reports nobody trusts.
Read-heavy paths where the join is genuinely expensive and the duplicated value rarely changes. Order totals and counters are the classic examples.
Every denormalised value needs a defined update path and a way to detect drift. Add both at the same time, or the shortcut becomes a bug.
The slow query log tells you exactly which statements are costing you. Most people never turn it on.
OFFSET-based pagination degrades exactly where it matters: deep in a large result set.
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Server response is usually a small fraction of what a visitor experiences. The rest is in the browser, and it is measurable.
